Navigating Climate Justice: Empowering BIPOC Youth with Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing – Non Profit News

Editors’ note: This piece is from Nonprofit Quarterly Magazine’s fall 2024 issue, “Supporting the Youth Climate Justice Movement.”

The climate crisis is an urgent and pervasive threat, and it disproportionately affects Black, Indigenous, and people of color communities.¹ These populations often face heightened exposure to environmental hazards such as rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and air pollution. According to the Environmental Protection Agency’s 2021 report, Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States: A Focus on Six Impacts:

Black and African American individuals are 40% more likely…to currently live in areas with the highest projected increases in mortality rates due to…extreme temperatures…[and] are 34% more likely to live in areas with the highest projected increases in childhood asthma diagnoses due to climate-driven changes in particulate air pollution….Hispanic and Latino individuals are 43% more likely…to currently live in areas with the highest projected labor hour losses in weather-exposed industries.… American Indian and Alaska Native individuals are 48% more likely…to currently live in areas where the highest percentage of land is projected to be inundated due to sea level rise…. Asian individuals are 23% more likely…to currently live in coastal areas with the highest projected increases in traffic delays from…high-tide flooding.²

Despite these risk disparities, there is a significant underrepresentation of individuals from these communities in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics—fields that design and use tools to understand, predict, and mitigate the impacts of climate change. The absence of such diverse perspectives leads to biases and unrealized solutions and innovations in scientific fields.³ BIPOC communities also possess place-based knowledge that can provide rich, detailed observations of climate impacts on local biophysical systems.⁴ This knowledge, derived from communities’ long-term interactions with their environments, is crucial for understanding local climate changes and developing effective adaptation strategies. Incorporating BIPOC perspectives into climate science not only addresses equity but also enhances the overall capacity to address climate challenges comprehensively.

Many factors contribute to BIPOC underrepresentation in climate-related STEM fields, including financial constraints, a lack of role models, systemic racism within educational institutions and the workforce, and limited exposure to STEM education. Integrating climate-related STEM pedagogy in K–12 school systems would support a new generation of BIPOC advocates in “the development of critical and creative thinking skills…needed to participate in resolving environmental issues.”⁵ Climate change education spans multiple science disciplines, including biology, Earth system science, and chemistry; however, the representation of these disciplines in school curricula and state standards may not be sufficient to support robust climate change education. For example, the 50-state analysis of Earth science education standards in 2007 identified a disconnect between “an Earth system literate society and the current K–12 education system that is responsible for developing this capacity.”⁶

Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing in Climate Work

Geography and geospatial science, which are integral parts of Earth system science, use tools such as geographic information systems and remote sensing to study the physical and cultural environments on Earth.⁷ Climate change analysis benefits from data generated by these tools. “[T]he sustained advancement in space and computer technology” ensures that “RS and GIS play a crucial role in tracing the trajectories of climate change and its effects for human survival.”⁸ These technologies enable researchers to monitor inaccessible areas in near real-time, providing comprehensive data that are critical for effective disaster management and mitigating climate change.⁹ Integrating these technologies into K–12 education would enhance students’ understanding of climate change and prepare them to address environmental challenges effectively.

Limited access to education is also a social vulnerability: the systemic barriers further exacerbate the disproportionate impacts of climate change on marginalized communities.According to NASA, the average surface temperature of Earth “was about 2.45 degrees Fahrenheit (or about 1.36 degrees Celsius) warmer in 2023 than the late 19th-century (1850–1900) preindustrial average”¹⁰ and “2.34 degrees Fahrenheit (1.30 degrees Celsius) above the 20th century baseline (1951 to 1980).”¹¹ The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change attributes the rise in global temperatures to expansion of anthropogenic, or human-caused, greenhouse gases.¹² GHGs such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are naturally occurring gases that absorb energy from the sun and trap heat inside the atmosphere reflected from the earth’s surface.¹³ Without GHGs “the average temperature of Earth would drop from 14° C (57° F) to as low as –18° C (–0.4° F).”¹⁴ However, human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, landfills, toxic agricultural practices, and transportation have increased the natural rate of these gases in the atmosphere. This can lead to a rise in sea levels, increased temperatures, and more frequent and severe extreme weather events. For example, May 2024 was the warmest May in history, according to NASA’s records;¹⁵ and July 2024’s Hurricane Beryl became “the earliest hurricane to reach Category 5 strength on record in the Atlantic Basin.”¹⁶ Addressing these challenges requires urgent, concerted global efforts to reduce GHG emissions and mitigate climate change impacts.

As NASA outlines, climate scientists use an array “of direct and indirect measurements to thoroughly investigate Earth’s climate history” and predict future trends.¹⁷ “These measurements include data from natural sources like tree rings, ice cores, corals, and sediments from oceans and lakes.”¹⁸ Data from technological sources, including satellites and both airborne and ground-based instruments, play a critical role in analysis.¹⁹ Scientists also use climate modeling, which implements computers to simulate the earth’s climate system and predict patterns based on real-world observations.²⁰

Geographic information systems is a tool that ties climate research together, allowing scientists to visualize, analyze, and interpret spatial (location-based) data, providing insights into climate patterns and aiding in the development of mitigation and adaptation strategies. GIS combines spatial data with various types of descriptive data (attributes) to create visual representations and perform advanced analyses. It provides a comprehensive platform for capturing, managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data from diverse sources.²¹ It is used in a number of fields, including urban planning, weather forecasting, agriculture, and utilities, and has become especially useful in climate change research.²² Moreover, GIS plays a significant role in disaster management and hazard mitigation by providing detailed data for assessing the socioeconomic impacts of natural disasters and planning effective emergency responses.²³

Remote sensing is the process of collecting data about an object or area from a distance, usually via satellites or aircraft. It involves the use of sensors that detect and record electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light, infrared, or radar) reflected or emitted from the earth’s surface or atmosphere.²⁴ Satellite imagery via remote sensing has been available for most of the world since 1972,²⁵ with data from airborne and ground-based instruments commonly used to validate satellite data and provide more localized measurements. Remote sensing can be used in the same fields as GIS: it is a data source, and GIS analyzes and visualizes the data.²⁶ Remote sensing has various applications, such as monitoring of land use and land changes, detection and monitoring of natural disasters, and assessment of air and water quality. Used together in the context of climate work, GIS and remote sensing technologies are essential for documenting, analyzing, and communicating the impacts of climate change.

Because these tools enable detailed mapping and monitoring of environmental changes, they offer critical insights for policymaking and community planning. For instance, GIS can map flood-prone areas, identify communities at risk, and aid in developing targeted mitigation strategies. And remote sensing through satellite imagery provides real-time data on deforestation, glacier melt, and urban heat islands, among other phenomena.

As described by Ryan Lanclos writing for Esri, GIS and remote sensing were instrumental in the response and recovery efforts in the aftermath of the devastating 2019 tornadoes in Lee County, AL. The National Weather Service used GIS to map and classify the extent and path of each tornado, detailing “storm start and end points, path length and width, and wind magnitudes.”²⁷ In an interview with Lanclos, Jared Bostic, deputy Geographic Information Officer with the Alabama Law Enforcement Agency, noted how he used GIS to record “tornado swaths” and “mapped an impact summary,” calculating the affected population, households, and businesses.²⁸ And FEMA developed “a partially automated imagery-derived model to conduct preliminary house-by-house damage estimates,” wrote Lanclos, significantly reducing assessment time “from five to six days…to less than 24 hours.”²⁹ Also, data integration from multiple sources, including aerial imagery, enabled the creation of web services, dashboards, and StoryMaps (a mapping technology) for efficient visualization and communication; local authorities, supported by GIS, provided detailed damage information to FEMA for federal recovery assistance; and the integration of GIS and remote sensing data facilitated coordinated response efforts, efficient resource management, and timely restoration of services, enhancing overall disaster management and recovery.³⁰

Persistent Impact Disparities and Barriers: Recognizing the Intersection of Racial and Climate Injustice

In “Centering Equity in the Nation’s Weather, Water, and Climate Services,” Aradhna Tripati et al. wrote, “Climate injustice refers to the role of structural discrimination in saddling communities of color and low-income communities with disproportionately high burdens of the harmful risks and impacts of climate change.”³¹ These communities often face greater exposure to environmental hazards and have fewer resources to adapt to or recover from climate-related disasters. This injustice is compounded by systemic inequalities that limit access to quality education and economic opportunities.

As the 2021 Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States report reminds us, “Race…plays a significant role in determining one’s risk of exposure to air pollution, even after controlling for other socioeconomic and demographic factors.”³² The report notes that there are higher exposures to particulate matter (PM2.5) and ozone “in neighborhoods with more racial minorities” and a concurrent “higher incidence of childhood asthma.”³³ And according to the EPA, “Many studies show that these microscopic fine particles can penetrate deep into the lungs, and that long- and short-term exposure can lead to asthma attacks, missed days of school or work, heart attacks, expensive emergency room visits and premature death.”³⁴

Limited access to education is also a social vulnerability: the systemic barriers further exacerbate the disproportionate impacts of climate change on marginalized communities, making it essential to address both environmental and educational inequities to achieve true climate justice.

Recognizing the intersection of racial and climate injustice requires understanding how colonization, genocide, racism, and slavery have made marginalized communities more susceptible to environmental hazards.Many BIPOC communities lack access to quality STEM education due to underfunded schools and resource disparities, resulting in fewer opportunities down the line to engage with the complex technologies used in climate work. Higher education in STEM fields often comes with significant financial burdens, and scholarships and funding opportunities for BIPOC students are limited. The underrepresentation of BIPOC professionals in these fields means fewer role models and mentors, which can perpetuate a cycle of exclusion. According to the U.S. National Science Foundation, “Collectively, Hispanic, Black, American Indian, and Alaska Native people made up 31% percent of the U.S. population, but [only] 24% of the STEM workforce in 2021.”³⁵

Systemic racism both creates and further compounds these issues, manifesting in discriminatory hiring practices, biased curricula, and a lack of supportive environments. With respect to GIS and remote sensing, the access barriers to education first reported on in the mid-1990s remain largely in place today.³⁶ Significant barriers include high costs of hardware and software, steep learning curves, limited access to data due to these technologies being regarded as commercial activity, and a lack of awareness or understanding of their potential applications.³⁷ These barriers continue to hinder the widespread and effective use of GIS in educational settings today, as confirmed by recent studies highlighting ongoing challenges such as a lack of teacher training and confidence, high workloads, complex software, insufficient hardware, inadequate curriculum integration, financial constraints, and a lack of technical support.³⁸

These systemic issues are mirrored in broader STEM education disparities, where marginalized students often lack access to well-prepared or experienced teachers and advanced coursework.³⁹ Data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reveal stark differences. In 2019, 48 percent of White fourth graders performed at or above the proficient level in mathematics, compared to only 15 percent of Black students, 27 percent of Hispanic students, 6 percent of Asian and Pacific Islander students, and 1 percent of American Indian and Alaska Native students. For science, the numbers are the same except for the following, including a change in racial breakdown: 5 percent of Asian, 4 percent of two or more races, and no percentage given for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.⁴⁰ Similar trends have been observed vis-à-vis mathematics regarding eighth graders, with 49 percent of White students, 14 percent of Black students, 26 percent of Hispanic students, 6 percent of Asian and Pacific Islander students, 1 percent of American Indian and Alaska Native students, and 3 percent of two or more races reaching proficiency. And for science, the numbers are the same except for the following, including a change in racial breakdown: 6 percent of Asian, 3 percent of two or more races, and no percentage given for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander.⁴¹ By twelfth grade, disparities increase, with White students reaching 52 percent proficiency while BIPOC students’ proficiency remains unchanged.⁴² Contributing factors include socioeconomic status, access to advanced coursework, teacher quality and expectations, and school resources. Students from lower-income backgrounds, who are disproportionately BIPOC, often attend underfunded schools with fewer resources, less-experienced teachers, and larger class sizes.⁴³ Additionally, schools in minority communities frequently lack essential resources like updated textbooks and technology.

Recognizing the intersection of racial and climate injustice requires understanding how colonization, genocide, racism, and slavery have made marginalized communities more susceptible to environmental hazards. Colonization and genocide have violently displaced Indigenous peoples and exploited their lands, resulting in the loss of traditional ways of living that were more sustainable and resilient to environmental changes.⁴⁴ Racism and slavery established enduring systems of economic and social inequality, with discriminatory practices in housing, education, and employment, limiting access to resources and opportunities for communities of color. Consequently, these communities face greater exposure to environmental hazards and have fewer resources to adapt to climate impacts. Addressing these issues toward true climate justice necessitates an approach that prioritizes the voices and needs of marginalized communities in climate action plans and policymaking, ensuring an equitable distribution of environmental benefits and burdens.

BIPOC Representation in GIS and Remote Sensing

By embedding climate and racial justice into the educational experience, schools can equip students with the knowledge and tools needed to address the critical climate issues we are facing, ultimately contributing to a more just and sustainable future. 

Despite the challenges, several initiatives and programs are successfully working to increase BIPOC representation in GIS and remote sensing. These initiatives provide valuable models to create more inclusive educational and professional environments.

Earth system educators have a compelling argument for incorporating GIS and remote sensing into their curricula: their purported ability to enhance spatial thinking skills. In the United States, the 1994 National Geography Standards explicitly encouraged the inclusion of GIS in precollegiate education, recognizing its potential to augment students’ geographic skills and spatial reasoning abilities.⁴⁵

Classroom-based GIS education in the United States often revolves around studying the local community. This approach highlights one of the perceived strengths of GIS as a powerful tool for exploring and understanding the local environment. Additionally, it reflects practical considerations such as the greater availability of local data and the development of programs that foster collaboration between classroom educators and local government or business entities that utilize GIS.

Integrating climate and racial justice into K–12 education is essential for fostering a generation of informed and empowered youth who understand the interconnected nature of these issues. Educational programs that incorporate environmental justice can help students recognize the disproportionate impact of climate change on marginalized communities and the systemic factors contributing to these disparities. This approach can also promote critical thinking and civic engagement, encouraging students to advocate for policies that address both environmental sustainability and social equity.

For instance, incorporating curriculum elements that highlight local and global examples of climate injustice can provide students with a concrete understanding of how climate change and racial injustice intersect in their communities and beyond. By embedding climate and racial justice into the educational experience, schools can equip students with the knowledge and tools needed to address these critical issues, ultimately contributing to a more just and sustainable future.

Additionally, hands-on projects can engage students in real-world applications of these concepts, fostering skills in data collection, analysis, and advocacy. In “The Pedagogical Benefits of Participatory GIS for Geographic Education,” Gaurav Sinha et al. write, “Community-driven participatory mapping and participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) projects empower community residents by letting them (as opposed to government or corporate mapping agencies) explore and map their local knowledge of natural resources, community risk, and political argumentation.”⁴⁶ These projects enhance community engagement and build local capacity by involving residents in the mapping process. They support effective resource management, improve environmental conservation efforts, and lead to better-informed decision-making that reflects the community’s priorities and needs. For BIPOC youth, these projects provide hands-on learning experiences that integrate STEM education with real-world applications, fostering critical thinking, spatial awareness, technical skills in mapping and data analysis, and a sense of environmental stewardship and community involvement.

Recommendations for Increasing Diversity and Inclusion

By equipping BIPOC youth with skills in these technologies, they can contribute to and lead climate action efforts in their communities, advocating for more equitable environmental policies and practices. To further increase diversity and inclusion in GIS and remote sensing, several strategies can be implemented at various levels, from educational institutions to industry leaders.

Enhance STEM education in BIPOC communities. Investing in STEM education within BIPOC communities is crucial. This includes funding for schools, access to up-to-date technology, and professional development for teachers. By ensuring that BIPOC students have early exposure to GIS and remote sensing, we can cultivate their interest and skills in these fields.

Provide financial support. Expanding scholarships, grants, and funding opportunities for BIPOC students pursuing GIS and remote sensing studies is essential. Financial support can alleviate the economic barriers that prevent many from entering these fields.

Create mentorship programs. Establishing mentorship programs that connect BIPOC youth with professionals in GIS and remote sensing can provide guidance, inspiration, and networking opportunities. These programs can help young people navigate educational and career pathways, increasing their chances of success.

Address systemic racism. Educational institutions and industry leaders must actively work to dismantle systemic racism. This includes implementing antiracist policies, fostering inclusive environments, and promoting diversity in hiring and curricula.

Practice community engagement and outreach. Engaging with BIPOC communities through outreach programs and public awareness campaigns can raise interest in GIS and remote sensing. By demonstrating the real-world applications of these technologies in addressing local environmental issues, we can inspire more youth to pursue careers in these fields.

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Empowering BIPOC youth through GIS and remote sensing education is a crucial step toward achieving climate justice. By addressing the barriers to access and representation and promoting successful initiatives and inclusive strategies, we can ensure that BIPOC communities are equipped with the tools and knowledge to combat climate change. These efforts will not only enhance diversity in the fields of GIS and remote sensing but also strengthen the broader climate justice movement, leading to more equitable and effective solutions for climate resilience and environmental justice.

Notable Programs Advancing GIS and Remote Sensing Education

YouthMappers is a global network that empowers university students to create and use open geographic data to address local and global development challenges. By establishing chapters at universities worldwide, including in many BIPOC communities, YouthMappers provides training, resources, and mentorship to students, fostering their skills in GIS and remote sensing. (See www.youthmappers.org/.)

Black Girls M.A.P.P. is an initiative aimed at increasing the representation of Black women in the fields of mapping and spatial data science. The program offers workshops, mentorship, and networking opportunities, helping participants to build skills and connect with professionals in the industry. (See “Black Girls M.A.P.P.: Diversifying the face of GIS.,” ArcGis StoryMaps, accessed July 8, 2024, storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/98c13248261842cbae0afc50953c2856; and “Connecting and empowering women of color in the field of GIS,” Black Girls M.A.P.P., accessed July 31, 2024, bgmapp.org/about/.)

The GLOBE Program (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) is an international science and education program under NASA that provides students and the public with the opportunity to participate in data collection and the scientific process. Through GLOBE, BIPOC students engage in hands-on learning experiences with GIS and remote sensing technologies, contributing to real-world environmental research. (See “The GLOBE Program Overview,” The GLOBE Program: A Worldwide Science and Education Program, accessed July 7, 2024, www.globe.gov/about/learn/program-overview.)

trubel&co (pronounced “trouble and co”) is a tech-justice nonprofit supporting underserved youth to tackle complex societal challenges using equitable data analytics, responsible technology, and inclusive design. Its flagship program, Mapping Justice, teaches high school students to design geospatial tools for social change, whereby students control their narrative and explore the intersections of race, power, and technology through digital applications. (See “Approach: Integrating STEM Education with Civic Innovation,” trubel&co, accessed July 7, 2024, www.trubel.co/approach; and “Mapping Justice,” trubel&co, accessed August 1, 2024, www.trubel.co/m-j.)

The Earthly Advocate is a nonprofit that promotes environmental justice through scientific research, education, and community engagement. The organization aims to provide comprehensive GIS and remote sensing research and education for communities plagued by environmental injustice. Its mission is “to provide underserved communities with the knowledge and resources to make educated decisions that benefit the environment and the people they serve.” The Earthly Advocate believes in the importance of science-based decision-making and strives to provide accurate, reliable, and accessible information to support this goal. (See www.earthlyadvocate.com/home.)

Notes: 

1. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “EPA Report Shows Disproportionate Impacts of Climate Change on Socially Vulnerable Populations in the United States,” news release, September 2, 2021, epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-report-shows-disproportionate-impacts-climate-change-socially-vulnerable.
2. Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States: A Focus on Six Impacts (Washington, DC: S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2021), 6.
3. María Rivera Maulucci, Stephanie Pfirman, and Hilary S. Callahan, eds., Transforming Education for Sustainability: Discourses on Justice, Inclusion, and Authenticity (New York: Springer, 2023), 54, 58.
4. See Victoria Reyes-García et , “Local indicators of climate change: The potential contribution of local knowledge to climate research,” WIREs Climate Change 7, no. 1 (January 2016): 109–24.
5. Bora Simmons, “Climate Change Education in the Formal K–12 Setting: Lessons Learned from Environmental Education,” paper presented at Board on Science Education, The National Academies, Committee on Human Dimensions of Global Change, Division of Earth and Life Studies, Workshop on Climate Change Education in Formal Settings, K–14, August 31–September 1, 2011, 3.
6. Martos Hoffman and Daniel Barstow, Revolutionizing Earth System Science Education for the 21st Century: Report and Recommendations from a 50-State Analysis of Earth Science Education Standards (Cambridge, MA: TERC Center for Earth and Space Science Education, 2007), 10.
7. Cameron McCormick, “Introduction to Geographic Science,” in Introduction to Geography: GEOG& 100 (Open Washington Pressbooks: d.).
8. Nathaniel Bayode Eniolorunda, “Climate Change Analysis and Adaptation: The Role of Remote Sensing (Rs) and Geographical Information System (Gis),” International Journal of Computational Engineering Research 4, no. 1 (January 2014): 48.
9. See , 41–51.
10. “Global Temperature: Latest Annual Average Anomaly: 2023,” NASA, accessed July 29, 2024, nasa.gov/vital-signs/global-temperature/?intent.
11. Sally Younger, “NASA Analysis Confirms a Year of Monthly Temperature Records,” NASA, June 11, 2024, nasa.gov/earth/nasa-analysis-confirms-a-year-of-monthly-temperature-records/.
12. “The Causes of Climate Change,” NASA, accessed July 29, 2024, gov/climate-change/causes/#footnote_1.
13. “The Greenhouse Effect and our Planet,” National Geographic, accessed July 29, 2024, education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/greenhouse-effect-our-planet/.
14. Ibid.
15. “In the Grip of Global Heat,” Earth Observatory, NASA, accessed July 29, 2024, nasa.gov/images/152995/in-the-grip-of-global-heat.
16. Jonathan Erdman, “How Hurricane Beryl Has Made History,” The Weather Channel, July 2, 2024, weather.com/storms/hurricane/news/2024-06-30-hurricane-beryl-historic-unusual-early-
17. “Frequently Asked Questions,” Climate Change, NASA, accessed July 29, 2024, nasa.gov/ climate-change/faq/.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. “What is a climate model?,” National Centre for Atmospheric Science, accessed July 29, 2024, ac.uk/ learn/what-is-a-climate-model/.
21. “What is GIS?,” Esri, accessed July 29, 2024, esri.com/en-us/what-is-gis/overview; “Guide to Geographic Information System (GIS) Careers,” Discover Data Science, accessed July 29, 2024, www.discoverdatascience.org/articles/guide-to-geographic-information-system-careers/; and “What is a geographic information system (GIS)?,” U.S. Geological Survey, accessed July 29, 2024, www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-geographic-information-system-gis.
22. Celeste Lagana, “Examples and uses of GIS,” Think (blog), IBM, December 18, 2023, ibm.com/think/geographic-information-system-use-cases/.
23. See Zsófia Kugler, “Remote sensing for natural hazard mitigation and climate change impact assessment,” Ido˝járás 116, 1 (January 2012): 21–38.
24. “What is remote sensing and what is it used for?,” S. Geological Survey, accessed July 29, 2024, www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-remote-sensing-and-what-it-used.
25. Senthil Kumar, S. Arivazhagan, and N. Rengarajan, “Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Environmental Sciences—A Review,” Journal of Environmental Nanotechnology 2, no. 2 (2013): 93.
26. “Difference Between Remote Sensing And GIS: Understanding the Key Differences,” SpatialPost, May 14, 2023, spatialpost.com/difference-between-remote-sensing-and-gis/.
27. Ryan Lanclos, “Authorities Map and Model Damage from Deadly Alabama Tornadoes,” Esri Blog, April 23, 2019, esri.com/about/newsroom/blog/authorities-map-and-model-damage-from-deadly-alabama-tornadoes/.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Aradhna Tripati et , “Centering Equity in the Nation’s Weather, Water, and Climate Services,” Environmental Justice 17, no. 1 (February 2024): 46.
32. Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States,
33. , 21, 27.
34. United States Environmental Protection Agency, “EPA finalizes stronger standards for harmful soot pollution, significantly increasing health and clean air protections for families, workers, and communities,” news release, last modified February 7, 2024, epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-finalizes-stronger-standards-harmful-soot-pollution-significantly-increasing.
35. “NSF’s NCSES releases report on diversity trends in STEM workforce and education,” NSF News, S. National Science Foundation, January 30, 2023, new.nsf.gov/news/diversity-and-stem-2023.
36. See Eric Sheppard, “GIS and Society: Towards a Research Agenda,” Cartography and Geographic Information Systems 22, no. 1 (1995): 5–16.
37. Ibid.
38. See Veronika Bernhäuserová et al., “The Limits of GIS Implementation in Education: A Systematic Review,” ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 11, 12 (November 2022): 1–25.
39. Sean Smith et al., Unequal Distribution of Resources for K–12 Science Instruction: Data from the 2012 National Survey of Science and Mathematics Education (Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc., 2013), 2, 3.
40. Per author analysis of National Assessment of Educational Progress data, “Percentages and percentile scores for grade four mathematics, by race/ethnicity used to report trends, school-reported [SDRACE] and jurisdiction: 2022 and 2019”; and “Percentages for grade 4 science, by race/ethnicity using 2011 guidelines, school-reported [SRACE10] and jurisdiction: 2019.” Sources: S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2019 and 2022 Mathematics Assessments; and U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2019 Science Assessment.
41. Per author analysis of National Assessment of Educational Progress data: “Percentages for grade 8 mathematics, by race/ethnicity used to report trends, school-reported [SDRACE] and jurisdiction: 2019”; and “Percentages for grade 8 science, by race/ethnicity using 2011 guidelines, school-reported [SRACE10] and jurisdiction: ” Sources: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2019 Science Assessment; and U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2019 Mathematics Assessment.
42. Per author analysis of National Assessment of Educational Progress data: “Percentages for grade 12 mathematics, by race/ethnicity used to report trends, school-reported [SDRACE] and jurisdiction: 2019”; and “Percentages for grade 12 science, by race/ethnicity used to report trends, school-reported [SDRACE] and jurisdiction: ” Sources: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2019 Mathematics Assessment; and U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2019 Science Assessment.
43. Mary McKillip and Theresa Luhm, Investing Additional Resources in Schools Serving Low-Income Students: Evidence for Advocates (Newark, NJ: Education Law Center, 2020), 2.
44. An Introduction to Climate Change, Health, and Equity: A Guide for Local Health Departments (Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, d.), 3.
45. Sarah Witham Bednarz, “Geographic Information Systems: A Tool to Support Geography and Environmental Education?,” GeoJournal 60, no. 2 (June 2004): 191.
46. Gaurav Sinha et , “The Pedagogical Benefits of Participatory GIS for Geographic Education,” Journal of Geography 116, no. 4 (August 2016), 1.